Continuous Human Activities Towards Global Warming

The marvel depicted as a worldwide temperature alteration has been very much contemplated and archived by analysts all through the world for quite a while. It is a marvel that can possibly devastate our planet and all life on it. This paper will quickly characterize a worldwide temperature alteration, give proof of an Earth-wide temperature boost, layout the fundamental driver of an Earth-wide temperature boost and talk about both the known and potential effects of an unnatural weather change on the planet earth. Remarks are made concerning moves being made just as others that should be taken to shield our planet from the potential disastrous outcomes of proceeded with an unnatural weather change. For a huge number of years the earth has experienced numerous adjustments in atmosphere. In the most recent decade in any case, the earth has encountered remarkable increments in temperature, bringing about rising ocean levels, changes in precipitation just as other atmosphere changes. The earth has not experienced such emotional atmosphere changes before in it's history as it has in the last one hundred years. A portion of these climatic changes have been accused on an unnatural weather change. What is this wonder alluded to as a dangerous atmospheric devation? An unnatural weather change is the term used to depict a moderate increment in the world's temperature because of human exercises. Models incorporate, the consuming of non-renewable energy sources and the creation of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which develop ozone depleting substances in the climate. The nursery impact is a term used to portray the warming of the world's surface because of the nearness of carbon dioxide and other air gases, which trap brilliant warmth at the world's surface. Graph 1 shows the nursery impact. The denser these gases the more warmth that is caught. Vitality from the sun drives the world's climate and atmosphere, and warms the world's surface; thus, the earth emanates vitality once again into space. Barometrical ozone depleting substances (water fume, carbon dioxide, and different gases) trap a portion of the active vitality holding heat. This isn't not normal for the glass boards of a nursery. (EPA 1) The expansion in the measures of ozone harming substances, for example, carbon dioxide and methane from businesses and vehicles makes vitality be caught in the world's environment bringing about an ascent of worldwide temperatures. Without a little nursery impact however, life as we probably am aware it couldn't in any way, shape or form exist on the earth. The regular nursery impact makes the mean temperature of the world's surface be roughly 33 degrees Celsius hotter than it would be if characteristic ozone depleting substances were absent in the world's air. (The Greenhouse Trap, 1) However, researchers are concerned that human exercises are increasing the nursery impact. Cairncross composes, â€Å"global warming is probably going to be the consequence of the development of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide† (Cairncross 111). The three fundamental ozone depleting substances delivered by human exercises are carbon dioxide, methane and nitrogen gas. Carbon dioxide is the most widely recognized ozone depleting substance delivered by people. It is answerable for over portion of the expansion in ozone harming substances present in the air. This is fundamentally because of the consuming of petroleum derivatives. Every year, the consuming of non-renewable energy sources discharges 5. 5 billion tons of carbon dioxide into the climate. (commentary) The fundamental wellsprings of carbon dioxide incorporate, electric utilities (35%), transport (30%), industry (24%), and the other 11% is delivered by private structures (Brisbane Adventist College www. ozkidz). The diagram beneath shows the sensational increment in carbon dioxide gases in the climate. It is accepted that since the Industrial Revolution started around 250 years prior, environmental carbon dioxide has expanded from an estimation of around 275 sections for every million preceding the Industrial Revolution to around 360 sections for each million of every 1996, and the pace of increment has speeded up over this range of time (Hartmann). Researchers have decided this by estimating the carbon dioxide levels noticeable all around that got caught in icy masses, several years prior. They at that point contrast this with the measures of carbon dioxide in the present air. A dangerous atmospheric devation was first anticipated in 1896, by a Swedish physicist named Svante Arrhenius. Arrhenius understood that the measure of carbon dioxide being discharged into the air was expanding quickly because of industrialization. Arrhenius anticipated that multiplying the measure of carbon dioxide in the air would raise the world's normal temperature by about 5 °C (Herring). In spite of the fact that nobody truly gave any consideration to him, Arrhenius' expectation was shockingly precise. He was distinctly off by around 2 to 3 degrees. This is entirely wonderful, considering he needed to make the estimations by hand without the guide of logical gear. It was not until the 1980's that it was resolved an unnatural weather change was really happening, right around a hundred years after it was first anticipated by Arrhenius. An Earth-wide temperature boost has just raised the normal temperature of the world's surface by around 0. 5 degrees inside the last one hundred years (Bates 6). The main ten hottest days in written history have all happened inside the 1990's. Worldwide temperature changes somewhere in the range of 1861 and 1996 are laid out in Diagram 2. It has been evaluated that worldwide normal temperatures will increment of as much as 9 degrees F (5 degrees C) before the year 2999 (6). As of not long ago the vast majority of the carbon dioxide delivered was consumed by the world's seas, trees and soils. The rest stayed in the climate. Tragically, presently we are creating more carbon dioxide and our seas, trees and soils are retaining less. This is halfway credited to the way that our woodlands are being obliterated. Research has been done to show that upwards of 60 sections of land of downpour woods are being annihilated, each hour, each day of the year. (The Rain timberland Trust Inc. ) on the planet, just 22% of the old development backwoods are as yet alive. This is on the grounds that more woodlands are being cleared to prepare for cultivating and the trees are not being supplanted. This damaging procedure is called deforestation. Deforestation has been going on since man started clearing land for agribusiness and has expanded significantly during the industrialization time frame. The emotional decrease in the world's forested territories can be seen on Figure 1. Figure 1 shows that between the years 900 and 1990 the world's forested region has declined from 40% to 20%. The downpour woodlands of the world are being decimated at a disturbing rate. Their misfortune is very concerning in light of the fact that they don't develop back without any problem. Backwoods are significant in light of the fact that they assimilate carbon dioxide from the air and discharge oxygen over into the air. Woods help lessen carbon dioxide levels in the air. In the event that present patterns proceed, the world's downpour woodlands could vanish in the following not many decades. Because of the loss of these backwoods, worldwide temperatures are rising quicker than they ever have on the grounds that less carbon dioxide is being expelled from the environment. Should worldwide temperatures keep on expanding at present day rates, researchers accept that there might be many negative effects from an unnatural weather change. For instance, should temperatures keep on rising, polar ice tops and icy masses will soften, causing the ocean and sea levels to rise. Numerous sea shores will sink underneath the water and numerous pieces of low lying areas will be lowered beneath water. It is additionally conceivable that some seaside zones will be totally secured by water. The world's sea levels have just ascended around four to six crawls since 1990 and it is relied upon to rise another six creeps continuously 2100. (Leatherman) This could flood numerous seaside urban communities, leaving a large number of individuals destitute. Maps 1 and 2 show the potential effect of raising ocean levels on North Carolina and Florida individually. Another conceivably appalling impact of an Earth-wide temperature boost is a decrease to the general soundness of individuals. There are a few infections that solitary influence individuals that live where the atmosphere is incredibly warm. Because of a general increment in temperature there will be more individuals biting the dust regular as a result of heart issues identified with heat depletion. Medical clinic confirmations show that demise rates increment during amazingly hot days, especially among the exceptionally old and extremely youngsters living in urban communities. Infections in tropical regions, similar to yellow fever and intestinal sickness would be progressively basic in zones like Canada and the United States should temperatures rise. This would make thousands bite the dust every year from these tropical sicknesses. An Earth-wide temperature boost patterns will likewise change precipitation designs. A few regions of the world will get wetter while others will get drier. Authentic proof recommends that the grain-developing territories of North America are probably going to have less downpour (Bates 19). This would bring about the Great Plains turning into a field or desert and the corn belt would encounter progressively visit dry seasons. These adjustments in precipitation examples will test the farming and water the board aptitudes of numerous nations. It is as yet feasible for both industrialized and creating nations to stop an unnatural weather change. To forestall genuine natural issues related with an Earth-wide temperature boost we should unite generally extraordinary social, political and financial interests to seek after most of the world's kin to make penances for people in the future. In December 1997, an understanding was made between 160 nations, in Kyoto, Japan, to cut nursery emanations by 5. % beneath 1990 levels by the 2008-2012 period. This implies the United States and Japan should bring down their nursery outflows by 7 and 6 percent individually. This decrease is to be cultivated by a mix of charges and guidelines, with certain sponsorships for actualizing green advances. (proquest article) Most organizations are attempting to function admirably in front of the understanding date and decrease nursery outflows now. Should an organization slice their outflows to where they decrease their emanations by more than 5. 2%, they can get contamination credits, which can be sol

Ongoing Formative Assessment Improves Student Learning

Progressing Formative Assessment Improves Student Learning What is a Formative Assessment? A developmental evaluation can be characterized as an assortment of smaller than usual appraisals that permit an instructor to change guidance consistently. These nonstop appraisals permit educators to utilize an assortment of instructional methodologies to assist understudies with arriving at instructional objectives. A developmental evaluation is fast and simple to director and furnishes both the instructor and understudy with brisk information that at last drives guidance and learning. Developmental appraisals center around an individual ability or a subset of aptitudes inside an educational plan rather than the whole educational plan. These evaluations are expected to quantify progress towards a particular objective. They additionally furnish understudies with a more profound comprehension of aptitudes they have aced just as abilities they battle with. There are a wide range of kinds of developmental evaluations that can be utilized in any study hall. A portion of the more well known ones incorporate direct addressing, learning/reaction logs, realistic coordinators, think pair offer, and four corners. Each circumstance is one of a kind. Educators need to make and use the sorts of developmental evaluations that will be the most valuable for their understudies and learning exercises. The Benefits of Ongoing Formative Assessment Instructors who use customary, progressing developmental appraisal in their homeroom find that understudy commitment and learning increases.â Teachers can utilize the information produced from developmental evaluation to drive instructional changes for both entire gathering and individual instruction.â Students discover an incentive in developmental evaluations in that they generally know where they stand and are progressively mindful of their own qualities and weaknesses.â Formative appraisals are anything but difficult to make, simple to take, simple to score, and simple to utilize the outcomes. Likewise, they just require a restricted measure of time to complete.â Formative appraisals help in defining individualized objectives for understudies and observing advancement on a day by day basis.â The Best Type of Formative Assessment? One of the most invaluable segments of developmental appraisal is that there is no single style of developmental assessment.â Instead, there are many various sorts of accessible developmental evaluations. Every educator can build up a profound collection of potential developmental evaluations. Besides, instructors can adjust and change a developmental evaluation to fit the requirements of their understudies. This is significant as fluctuation helps keep understudies drew in and guarantees that the instructor can coordinate the best possible appraisal of the ideas being found out. Having alternatives likewise guarantees that understudies will in all likelihood observe a few appraisal types during the time that normally adjusts to their individual inclinations or qualities just as their weaknesses.â The best kind of developmental evaluation is drawing in, lines up with understudy qualities, and recognizes zones in which extra guidance or help is required. Developmental Assessments versus Summative Assessments Educators who just use summative appraisals to assess understudy learning is doing their understudies a disservice.â A summative appraisal is intended to assess learning over an all-inclusive time of time.â A developmental evaluation measures learning on a normal and frequently everyday schedule. Understudies are given quick criticism that permits them to address the errors they are making. A summative evaluation constrains this in view of the more extended time span. Numerous instructors go through a summative appraisal to wrap a unit and once in a while return to those ideas in any event, when understudies don't perform well.â Summative evaluations offer worth, yet related or in organization with developmental appraisals. Developmental appraisals should work to an inevitable summative evaluation. Advancing along these lines guarantees that instructors can evaluate parts to the whole.â It is a more characteristic movement than essentially hurling a summative appraisal toward the finish of a fourteen day unit. Wrapping It Up Developmental appraisals are a demonstrated instructive devices offering esteem a great deal of significant worth for educators and students.â Teachers can create and utilize developmental evaluations to manage future guidance, create singular learning objectives for understudies, and acquire important data about the nature of the exercises being introduced to students.â Students advantage since they get quick, progressing input that can enable them to know where they stand scholastically at any given all in all, developmental appraisals ought to be a customary part of any study hall appraisal schedule.

Antietam campaign

Antietam campaign Antietam campaign ante ´t?m [key], Sept., 1862, of the Civil War. After the second battle of Bull Run , Gen. Robert E. Lee crossed the Potomac to invade Maryland and Pennsylvania. At Frederick, Md., he divided (Sept. 10) his army, sending Stonewall Jackson to capture the large Union garrison at Harpers Ferry and thus clear his communications through the Shenandoah valley. With the remainder, Lee marched NW toward Hagerstown. Gen. George B. McClellan learned of this division of forces and moved to attack. In the battle on South Mt. (the Blue Ridge N of the Potomac, 12 mi/19 km W of Frederick) on Sept. 14, 1862, McClellan defeated Lee's rear guard and took the passes of that range. Lee then fell back to Sharpsburg (c.9 mi/14.5 km W of South Mt.), where his position lay behind Antietam Creek. On Sept. 15 the Harpers Ferry garrison capitulated to Jackson, who, with part of his command, joined Lee before McClellan attacked. The battle of Antietam (or Sharpsburg) opened on the mornin g of Sept. 17. Early assaults on Lee's left were bloody but indecisive, and McClellan failed to press the slight Union advantage with his available reserves. In the afternoon Burnside's corps crossed the Antietam over the bridge on Lee's right and drove the Confederates back, but A. P. Hill's division arrived from Harpers Ferry and repulsed the attack. The battle was not renewed. On Sept. 18â€"19, Lee recrossed the Potomac into Virginia unhindered. The fighting at Antietam was so fierce that Sept. 17, 1862, is said to have been the bloodiest single day of the war with some 23,000 dead and wounded, evenly divided between the sides. It was a Union victory only in the sense that Lee's invasion was stopped. McClellan has been blamed for not pursuing Lee with his superior forces. The scene of the battle of Antietam has been set aside as a national battlefield (est. 1890; see National Parks and Monuments , table). The battle influenced Lincoln's decisions to remove McClellan and to deliv er a preliminary Emancipation Proclamation. See K. P. Williams, Lincoln Finds a General (Vol. II, 1950); J. V. Murfin, The Gleam of Bayonets (1965); W. A. Frassunito, Antietam: The Photographic Legacy of America's Bloodiest Day (1978); S. W. Sears, Landscape Turned Red (1988). The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. See more Encyclopedia articles on: U.S. History

American Indian Religious Freedom Act - 1690 Words

Prior to the Second World War, religious places remained untouched as they were mainly located in rural areas. However, the period after the Second World War was characterized by an increase in population, corporate farming, a more vibrant timber industry as well as an expanded recreational industry. This change resulted in less respect for the public land, and the situation was made worse by the proliferation of state and federal agencies that have no respect for the public land. It thus becomes difficult for the Native Indians to have access to shrines as the politicians’ promulgated rules that disregarded public land particularly places of worship. One such narrow-minded law that has failed to achieve its ultimate goal is the American Indian Religious Freedom Act that was enacted in 1978. The law made it clear the government efforts of protecting the religious rights of the American Indians not only to express their belief but also to practice this believes through tradit ional religion. However, this law faced major blows especially on the corridors of justice where the Court viewed the Congress’ action in enacting the American Indian Religious Freedom Act as efforts of the government to establish a state religion. Instead of the government respecting the right of the Indians to maintain their religious places, it invokes its power as the custodian of the public land by claiming that it has the mandate of utilizing any piece of public land for the benefit of the entireShow MoreRelatedThe Indian Claims Commission And The Civil Rights Movement806 Words   |  4 PagesThe Indian Claims Commission was a judicial panel for relations between the United States Federal Government and Native American tribes. 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The West Between The Wars - 1186 Words

The West between the Wars The Great War, or World War I, ended in 1918 with the Treaty of Paris. It marked the beginning of a new era. During the war, there was a boom in the economy and employment was easy to find. The damage the war caused on the land in Europe was catastrophic; with the trenches and heavy artillery and machinery being used to destroy each other and take cities, it is amazing that there was anything left. Many people, soldiers and civilians, died during the war. After World War I, many countries gained their independence, and many countries suffered severe economic debt due to the expensive war reparations. Europe was hit hardest with the aftershock of the war. Each country was effected differently by the war. After being defeated by the Allies, Austria was forced to dismember its empire. Austria lost Hungarian and Balkan territories (Slovenia, Croatia, and Bosnia) to the Allies. Belgium was left in shambles where the Germans tried to invade into France, it was fur ther damaged after Germany refused to pay war reparations. Germany was severely weakened after it lost World War I. It lost its overseas territories and is no longer a threat to the United Kingdom nor the United States because of the limit that was placed on Germany’s military. The economy and morale of Germany was severely declined; it made it easier for the reign of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party to take root in Germany. Hungary is forced to divide into small states based on ethnic groups.Show MoreRelatedThe Cold War Between East And West From The End Of The Ussr Essay1596 Words   |  7 Pages From 1948 to 1991 countless anti-communist films were made, dominating the stage of transnational politics and geostrategic affairs between East and West from the beginning to the end of the USSR. The Cold War would impose an atmosphere bursting with tension on the world film production arena. 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Why Should Animals Be Kept in a Zoo Free Essays

I believe animals should be kept in the zoo because it it helps protect our species from being endangered. It also provides the Public education on all the animals, helps endangered species by breeding the animals and animals are mostly born in the zoo not knowing what it is like to live in the wild. Zoos are vital for education. We will write a custom essay sample on Why Should Animals Be Kept in a Zoo or any similar topic only for you Order Now It helps people view beautiful animals that they would never see if they were in the wild.Therefore, it teaches us the threats which hopefully can in courage the public to respect and protect the animals. The money the zoo brings is used for food, care, and breeding programs. Many of the animals in the zoos are captive-breed. The animals have not been taken from the wild and locked up in cages. They were born in captivity and no nothing else other than life in the zoo. They do not miss the wild, since they have no idea such a thing exist and seem to be very happy in the zoo.If animals in the zoo where unhappy they would not have such a breeding success (unhappy or unhealthy do not breed). They are better off in captivity, since they do not have to deal with the dangers of the wild, disease, injurys, predators, or starvation. Its true, that captive conditions in the past were crule. They were kept in crammed cages. This could still be the case in some countries. However in most countries, zoos are carefully watched.The animals are kept in good conditions and as close as possiable to their natural habitant, with lots of space, good diets and good medical care. The animals have things to play with, if they are playful animals. Therefore are helped to solve problems to get there food, rather then it just being found on the floor for them to eat. Ther are many reasons that I think animals should be kept in a zoo. Saftey , education, helping the endagered species, and breeding are all reasons we should keep animals in the zoo. How to cite Why Should Animals Be Kept in a Zoo, Papers

review sheet Essay Example

review sheet Essay University of Houston Gerald D. Hines College of Architecture ARCH 2350 AND 6340 SURVEY OF ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY I Cultures of the World from Prehistory through 1750 Fall, 2013: Lectures on Mondays and Wednesdays, Seminar/Discussion (lab) sections on Thursdays or Fridays Instructor: Nora Laos Office Hours: By appointment, Room College of Architecture Teaching Assistants: Brandon Berry Tiger Lyon Andrew OToole This course is an investigation of the various eastern and western architectural traditions from prehistoric origins, through Egypt, India, China and Japan to ancient Greece and Rome, concluding with the significant monuments of Islamic and Christian cultures, and the Renaissance and Baroque periods. We will primarily examine the architectural character of individual buildings with an effort to place them in their cultural and urban contexts, but we will also analyze general urban planning principles of different civilizations as well as specific architectural and sculptural details. Architecture is a multi-faceted art and a science, and thus we will endeavor to study the aesthetic quality of buildings, their functional objectives as well as their tructural systems, materials and methods of construction. Moreover, since architecture reflects the society and civilization within which it was produced, we must always consider the cultural and intellectual context and chronological time frame of a monument, in order to fully appreciate its significance in the history of the building tradition. Course Objectives and Expected Learning Outcomes: ?To understand how and why history is relevant to the architect. What can it teach done so, and to assess how this brings meaning to architectural production. ?To understand the relationship between form and function and between form and eaning. ?To understand how the psychology of space is addressed: why we are moved by certain spaces, volumes or forms, but not by others. ?To learn how to analyze architecture and how to critically write about the subject. RECOMMENDED TEXTBOOKS: Ching, Francis D. K. , M. J. Jarzombek and V. Prakash, A Global History of Architecture, 2nd ed. , New Jersey: John Wiley Sons, 2011. Moffett, Marian, Michael Fazio and Law rence Wodehouse, Buildings Across Time, an Introduction to World Architecture, London: Laurence King Publishing, 2004. Trachtenberg, Marvin and Isabelle Hyman, Architecture from Prehistory to Postmodernism: The We will write a custom essay sample on review sheet specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on review sheet specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on review sheet specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Western Tradition, 2nd ed. , New York and Englewood Cliffs, 2002. Ingersoll, Richard and Spiro Kostof, World Architecture: A Cross-cultural History, New York and Oxford, 2012. Nuttgens, Patrick, The Story of Architecture, 2nd ed. , London: Phaidon Press, 1997. Sutton, Ian, Western Architecture: From Ancient Greece to the Present, London: Thames and Hudson, 1999. Relevant readings from these texts are indicated in the detailed course syllabus. A glossary of architectural terminology is available at the end of Ingersolls book (pp. 957-964, Chings book (pp. 799-807), Moffetts book (pp. 68-571), and Trachtenbergs book (pp. 83-589). Bibliographies are organized chronologically at the end of Ching (pp. 809-818), Moffett (pp. 572-575), Trachtenberg (pp. 591-601), and at the end of each section of Ingersolls book. EXAMS: There will be three hour-exams on the following dates: First Hour-Exam: Monday, September 30, 10:00 am Second Hour-Exam: Monday, November 4, 10:00 am Third Hour-Exam: Monday , December 16, 1 1 am ASSIGNMENTS: discussion sections: October 24/25 November 21/22 These writing assignments will be linked to specific assigned readings and are intended to address reading comprehension skills. The readings will be available at east one week in advance and you will be required, in your discussion section, to respond to specific questions about the content and the authors arguments. Your responses will be written during your discussion section in blank Blue Books; all responses must be handed in at the end of the class. IMAGES: Powerpoint images shown in lectures will be accessible on Blackboard Learn, organized by lecture. Each student registered for the course will also be registered on Blackboard Learn. GRADING for students enrolled ARCH 2350: First Hour-Exam Second Hour-Exam Third Hour-Exam Writing Assignments x 2 @ 15% each Attendance, professionalism and class participation in discussion sections GRADING for students enrolled ARCH 6340: First Hour Exam Second Hour Exam Third Hour Exam Essays x 2 @ 15% each Short paper (1000 words), topic, due date tba GENERAL INFORMATION Prerequisite for students enrolled in ARCH 2350: English 1304, 1310 or its equivalent, completed or being taken concurrently. The content of the discussion sections (labs) will include discussion and clarification of the weekly lectures, specifically with the intent of understanding how architectural history can be relevant to the present, especially to contemporary rchitectural design. Attendance will be taken at each session and students are expected to participate in discussions. In order to perform well in this course, you must regularly attend both the lectures and the discussion sections. The material covered on the hour exams derives directly Make-up exams and make-up essays will be given only with a legitimate doctors note, police report or court order. There will be no make-up for the third hour exam. Plagiarism, defined as the appropriation or imitation of the language, ideas, or thoughts of another author, and representation of them as ones original work, will NOT be tolerated. Penalties may include a failing grade in the course, suspension, or expulsion from the university. The last day to drop the course with a grade of MT is Friday, November 1, 5:00pm. The university will NOT allow any withdrawals after this date. The University of Houston System complies with Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, pertaining to the provision of reasonable academic adjustments/auxiliary aids for students with a disability. In accordance with Section 504 and ADA guidelines, each University within the System trives to provide reasonable academic adjustments/auxiliary aids to students who request and require them. If you believe that you have a disability requiring an academic adjustments/auxiliary aid, please contact the student disability services center at 713-743-5400. Schedule of Lectures Monday, August 26 Introduction and overview of the course Wednesday, August 28 Prehistoric Architecture-Late New Stone Age Monday, September 2 NO CLASS: Labor Day Holiday Wednesday, September 4 Egypt: Old and New Kingdoms Monday, September 9 Pre-Columbian Meso-America Wednesday, September 1 1 Buddhist and Hindu Sanctuaries in India and Cambodia Monday, September 16 Architecture and Culture of China Wednesday, September 18Architecture and Culture of Japan Monday, September 23 Greece: Site Planning: the Acropolis and the Agora Wednesday, September 25Greece: the Architecture of Temples Monday, September 30 First Hour-Exam Wednesday, October 2 Introduction The Roman Civic Presence l: Forum, Basilica Monday, October 7 The Roman Civic Presence II: Market, Theater and Amphitheater Wednesday, October 9 The Roman Civic Presence Ill: Gate, Arch, Aqueduct Monday, October 14 The Roman Religious Presence: Temple and Tomb Wednesday, October 16The Roman Residence: Villa and House Monday, October 21 Early Christian and Byzantine Architecture Wednesday, October 23 Architecture of the Islamic World: the Mosque Monday, October 28 Romanesque Architecture: Pilgrimage Churches and Cistercian Monasteries Monday, November 4 Second Hour-Exam Wednesday, November 6 Introduction to the Renaissance The Work of Brunelleschi Monday, November 1 1 The Work of Alberti and Bramante Wednesday, November 13 The Work of Michelangelo and Palladio Monday, November 18 Renaissance France: the Architecture of the Chateau Wednesday, November 20 Baroque Italy: the work of Bernini and Borromini Monday, November 25 Baroque nd Rococo in Austria and Germany Wednesday, November 27 NO CLASS: Thanksgiving Holiday Monday, December 2 France in the 17th Century 16th and 17th-Century Landscape Design Wednesday, December 4 England in the 17th Century Monday, December 16 Third Hour-Exam 11:00 am ARCH 2350/6340 Prehistoric Architecture Late New Stone Age (Neolithic) 3000-1000 BCE Suggested Reading: I ngersoll, pp. 23-32; Trachtenberg, pp. 57-61; Nuttgens, pp. 10-15; Ching, pp. 23-24, 47-51; Moffett, pp. 9-14. France, Carnac (in the region of Brittany) and England, Avebury, menhirs (megaliths literally, large stones] or monolithic upright stone markers), dolmens (two menhirs supporting a horizontal block, usually used for marking tombs (substructure of a barrow), post and lintel structural system), ca. 2000-1500 BCE. England, Stonehenge (near Salisbury), composed stone group based on a circular plan (henge monument), ca. 2750-1500 BCE, post and lintel structural system, mortise and tenon Joints; optical refinements: tapered pillars, inclining lintels. France, Gordes (in the region of Provence), The Bories, reconstructed prehistoric village; domestic architecture built up with relatively thin stone slabs, use of orbeling technique, ca. 2000 BCE. trilith [literally three stones] entry portals, (combination of corbeled construction with post and lintel construction). University of Houston Egypt: Old and New Kingdoms Suggested Reading: Ingersoll, pp. 48-60, 86-97; Trachtenberg, pp. 62-71; Nuttgens, pp. 28-41; Ching, pp. 39-45, 64-73; Moffett, pp. 23-37. Important Historical Information: ca. 3200-2160 BCE Old Kingdom ca. 1570-1100 BCE New Kingdom Old Kingdom Saqqara, Mortuary Complex of King Zoser, ca. 2650 BCE mastaba (bench in Arabic; bench-like quadrangular form); architect Imhotep. Giza, complex of Great pyramids, 2580-2500 BCE Cheops (Khufu), Chepren (Khafa) and Mycerinus (Menkure) Predetermined architectural procession: river, Valley Temple, causeway, Mortuary Temple, tomb. New Kingdom Deir el Bahari, Mortuary Temple of Queen Hatshepsut, ca. 1500 BCE architect: Senmut; dedicated to the sun god Amon-Ra; Proto Doric colonnades. Pre-Columbian Meso-America Suggested Reading: Ingersoll, pp. 83-190, 251-263; Nuttgens, Ch. 6; Ching, pp. 225-27, 432-34; Moffett, pp. 283-293. City of Teotihuacan, 150-650 CE, (when it was burned), located in the Valley of Mexico, ca 40 miles northeast of Mexico City: Pyramid of the Moon?talud/tablero profile; pen plaza in front of Pyramid of the Moon; Pyramid of the Sun; Citadel with Temple of the Feathe red Serpent; open compound: probably marketplace and administrative center; Street of the Dead. City of Chichen Itza, (Yucatan Peninsula), ca. 750-1200 CE: open plaza cont. pyramid, known as Castillo, Temple of Warriors to east, surrounded by rows of columns that create second open plaza, ritual Ball Court opposite, to west. Very north end of site occupied by sink well (place of sacrifice); city extends also toward south, w/ palaces and other temples (Red House) a round astronomical observatory (Caracol or snail). Buddhist and Hindu Sanctuaries in India and Cambodia suggested Reading: Ingersoll, pp. 141-147, 216-225, 265-279; Ching, pp. 30-31, 176-81, 214-15, 235-37, 244-45, 281, 594-95, 318-20; Moffett, pp. 67-85. Mohenjo-Daro (city in Indus Valley), today in Pakistan, ca 2500 BCE Buddhist sanctuanes (Buddha [565-480 BCE]) Sanchi, Great Stupa, 1st. century CE stupa relic mound with four gates (torana) Ajanta, Chaitya Hall, 250 CE chaitya = assembly hall or cave shrine, rock-cut sanctuaries Mahabalipuram, (Mamallapuram), Shore Temples, ca 700 CE two shrines dedicated to Shiva, one to Vishnu vimana = terraced tower above each shrine Madurai, Great Temple (Sri Meenakshi Temple), 1623 CE gopuram = terraced tower above a threshold (over a portal) Hindu Sanctuaries in Cambodia Angkor Wat, temple of the capital, 1 112-52 CE Architecture and Culture of China Suggested Reading: Ingersoll, pp. 175-182, 240-250, 424-436; Nuttgens, ch. 5; Ching, pp. 185, 286, 298-99; Moffett, pp. 86-99. Great Wall(s), first begun 221-206 BCE; maintained and upgraded primarily during the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 CE). Guangdong (modern city with older districts); precedents: clay models buried in tombs, primarily from Han Dynasty burials (1st-2nd cents. CE); vernacular example: Hakka Housing. Chinese beam frame construction: Shanxi Province, Foguang Temple, 857 CE: wood frame construction, bracket clusters (tou-kung), concave roof profile. Various garden pavilions. beneficial, and the actions of man are in harmony with the social, cultural and political situations, then the feng Shui is auspicious. Three religious philosophies: Buddhism [imported from India; founded by Buddha (565-480 BCE)]. Confucianism: based on teachings of Confucius (551-479 BCE): based on moral conduct Cen) and combination of etiquette and ritual traditions (II). Taoism: based on Tao te Ching (The Book of the Virtuous Way), written by Lao-tzu, 6th cent. BCE. Songyue Pagoda, Henan Province, 520 CE Architecture and Culture of Japan Suggested Reading: Ingersoll, pp. 521-533; Nuttgens, ch. 5; Ching, pp. 287-92, 486-93; Moffett, pp. 9-109. Ise, Shinto Shrine, (Naiku), founded in 3rd cent. CE: dedicated to the Sun Goddess; tori, katsuogi, chigi, Wabi-Sabi. Nara, HoryuJi, Buddhist Shrine and Monastery, 7th cent. CE: hosho. Nagano, Matsumoto Castle, 16th cent CE. and Kobe (Hyogo), HimaJi Castle, 16th cent. CE; shogun garrison castles. Residential Archite cture Lashed frame structures: indigenous (vernacular) development. Two types develop from the lashed frame, and eventually merge together: . ) minka: based on lashed frame; rectangle, modular grid, interchangeable use of space; shoji. Teahouses (Sukiya)?influenced by Zen Buddhism Kyoto Province, Talan Teahouse, 16th cent. CE: tea-room with tokonoma, anteroom, entrance for tea master, garden path, exterior portico. Sukiya Style Residential Architecture Kyoto, Katsura Imperial Villa, 1625 CE. SURVEY OF ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY, I Greece: Site Planning: The Acropolis and the Agora Suggested Reading: Ingersoll, pp. 117-141; Trachtenberg, pp. 91-115; Nuttgens, pp. 86-101 ;sutton, pp. 10-17; Ching, pp. 121-24, 132-34 Moffett, pp. 53-56, 60-62. Important historical information: Dorians and Ionians: two of the tribes that settled in Aegean, beginning in 1100 BCE. Greek culture based on polis (city-state) and anthropomorphic polytheism (the worship of many gods who were divine but had human-like characteristics and form). Athens, Agora, 5th cent. BCE; open marketplace and civic center of the city; surrounded by several different building types arranged casually around the open square: Stoa of Zeus (stoa: long and narrow structure, usually open to one side with a colonnade, used for many civic purposes), New Bouleterion (bouleterion: council ouse), Temple of Hephaestus, Tholos or Skias (tholos: round temple type, here adapted for use as a dining room for the heads of the city council), South Stoa, Stoa of Attalus (added in the 2nd cent. BCE); the Panathenaic Way cuts across the Agora at a diagonal. Panathenaic Way: ceremonial path from Piraeus (the port city of Athens) through Athens up to the Acropolis; used for an annual procession in honor of Athena, the goddess who protected the city. Athens, Acropolis; the hill was inhabited as early as 3000 BCE; in the 13th century BCE the hilltop was occupied by a Mycenean citadel; transformed into an Archaic